Small-Scale Municipal Solid Waste Energy Recovery Systems

1. Introduction.- 2. Market Development of Energy Recovery.- Historical Overview.- Factors Shaping the Market.- Conventional Fossil Fuel and Electricity Costs.- Disposal Costs.- Landfill Practices.- Haul Distance.- Development Authorities.- 3. Solid Waste Characteristics.- Quantity.- Composition.- Energy Content.- 4. Markets.- Potential Markets.- Thermal Energy.- Steam.- Hot Water.- Hot Air.- Supply/Demand Considerations.- Electricity.- Industrial Energy Market Summary.- Cogeneration.- Refuse-Derived Fuel and Materials Recovery.- Refuse-Derived Fuel.- Ferrous Metals.- Glass.- Aluminum.- Nonferrous Metals.- Wastepaper.- Market Development.- Identifying a Market.- Commitment Stage.- Contract Stage.- Conclusion.- 5. Small-Scale Technology.- Mass Burning.- Direct Combustion.- Modular Incineration.- Problems.- Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF).- RDF Processing.- Refuse-Derived Fuel Co-fired with Coal.- Refuse-Derived Fuel Dedicated Boiler.- Background.- Current Status.- Future Developments.- Vendors.- Problems.- 6. Small-Scale System Economics.- The Base Case-Conventional Waste Management Systems.- Transportation Network.- Existing Refuse Collection System.- Analysis Parameters.- Calculation of Haul Distances.- Residue Disposal.- Additional Considerations.- Transportation Cost Analysis.- Transportation System Cost Estimation Procedure.- Waste-to-Energy Project Costs.- Capital Costs.- Operations and Maintenance Costs.- Waste-to-Energy Project Economics.- Revenues.- Life Cycle Costs.- Economics of Cogeneration Systems.- 7. Financing Alternatives for Small-Scale Solid Waste-to-Energy Projects.- Types of Tax-Exempt Financing Available to Waste-to-Energy Facilities.- General Obligation Bond Financing.- Municipal Revenue Bonds.- Industrial Development Revenue Bonds.- Leveraged Leasing.- Creative Financing Techniques.- Deferred Equity.- Step Financing (Deferred Principal Repayment).- Variable Rate Financing (Floating Rate Securities).- Variable Rate Demand Bonds.- Adjustable Rate Bonds.- Daily Adjustable Tax-Exempt Securities.- Federal Tax Benefits of Private Ownership.- Accelerated Cost Recovery System Depreciation.- Investment Tax Credits.- Interest Deductions.- Typical Steps Necessary to Bring a Bond Issue to Market.- Critical Project Elements Evaluated by the Investment Banking Community to Determine the Financeability of a Waste-to-Energy Project.- Credit Backing.- Demonstrated Expertise of Project Contractors and/or Engineers.- Independent Feasibility Study.- Back-up Landfill or Other Facility Capacity.- Revenue Sufficiency.- Reserves.- Adequate Sources of Capital.- Continuous Supply of Solid Waste.- Long-Term Market(s) for Energy.- Insurance.- Demonstrated Compliance with Laws and Regulations.- Favorable Rating by Recognized Rating Agencies.- 8. Environmental Issues.- Sources of Air Pollutants.- Types of Air Pollutants.- Particulates.- Nitrogen Oxides (NOx).- Sulfur Oxide (SOx).- Carbon Monoxide (CO).- Total Hydrocarbons (THC).- Lead (Pb).- Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) and Hydrogen Fluoride (HF).- Beryllium (Be) and Mercury (Hg).- Dioxins.- Federal Air Pollution Control Laws and Regulations.- National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).- Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD).- New Source Performance Standards (NSPS).- National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP).- Air Pollution Control Equipment.- Electrostatic Precipitators.- Fabric Filters.- Electrostatic Granular Filter.- Scrubbers.- Sources and Control of Wastewater Discharge.- Federal Laws and Regulations.- National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).- National Pretreatment Standards.- Residue and Ash.- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.- State Environmental Standards.- Summary.- 9. Project Development.- Past Examples.- Stages of a Project.- Project Building Blocks.- Institutional Setting.- Roles That Can Be Taken.- Procurement Alternatives and Risks.- Procurement Documentation.- Negotiations.- Public Involvement.- 10. Three Small-Scale