Buffers for pH and Metal Ion Control

1. Introduction.- 1.1 The concept of buffer action.- 1.2 Why are buffers needed?.- 1.3 Some naturally occurring buffers.- 2. The Theory of Buffer Action.- 2.1 Equilibrium aspects.- 2.2 Activity effects.- 2.3 Effect of dilution.- 2.4 Salt effects.- 2.5 Ampholytes and zwitterions.- 2.6 Buffer capacity.- 2.6.1 Buffer capacity of a polybasic acid.- 2.7 Pseudo buffers.- 2.8 Self buffers.- 2.9 Mixtures of buffers.- 2.10 Temperature dependence.- 2.11 Effect of pressure on buffers.- 2.12 Further reading.- 3. Applications of pH Buffers.- 3.1 Factors governing the choice of a buffer.- 3.2 Measurement of pH.- 3.3 Biochemistry and biology.- 3.4 Spectroscopy.- 3.5 Buffers for special applications.- 3.5.1 Volatile buffers.- 3.5.2 Buffers for electrophoresis.- 3.5.3 Buffers for complexometric titrations.- 3.5.4 Buffers for chromatography.- 3.5.5 Buffers for polarography.- 3.5.6 Buffers for proton magnetic resonance studies.- 3.5.7 Buffers for solvent extraction.- 3.5.8 Isotonic pharmaceutical buffers.- 3.5.9 Miscellaneous.- 4. Practical Limitations in the Use of Buffers.- 4.1 Chemical problems.- 4.2 Biological effects.- 4.3 Influence on chemical reactions.- 5. New pH-Buffer Tables and Systems.- 5.1 On calculating buffer composition tables.- 5.1.1 Buffers of constant ionic strength. No added electrolyte.- 5.1.2 Constant ionic strength buffers with added electrolyte.- 5.1.2.1 Preparation of amine buffers of constant ionic strength.- 5.1.3 Buffers by direct titration of weak bases or acids with strong acids or bases.- 5.2 On designing a new pH-buffer system.- 6. Buffers for use in Partially Aqueous and Non-Aqueous Solvents and Heavy Water.- 6.1 pH Scales.- 6.2 pH Buffers.- 6.3 The measurement of pH .- 6.4 A universal pH scale.- 6.5 The pD scale and the measurement of pD.- 6.6 The use of pH and pD buffers.- 6.6.1 The determination of dissociation constants of acids.- 6.6.2 Rate studies in heavy water.- 6.7 Surfactants.- 7. Metal-ion Buffers.- 7.1 The concept of pM.- 7.2 Uses of metal-ion buffers.- 7.3 Calculation of pM.- 7.4 pH-Independent metal-ion buffers.- 7.5 Effects of pH buffer substances on pM.- 7.6 Anion buffers.- 7.7 Redox buffering.- 8. Purification of Substances Used in Buffers.- 9. Preparation of Buffer Solutions.- 10. Appendices.- Appendix I. Tables for constructing buffer tables.- Appendix II. Composition-pH tables of some commonly used buffers.- Appendix III. Thermodynamic acid dissociation constants of prospective buffer substances.- Appendix IV. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.- References.