International Handbook of Information Technology in Primary and Secondary Education, 2 Volumes. Vol.

Preface xxvii Introduction xxix

Part One Section 1 Education in the Information Society 3

Section Editor: Ronald E. Anderson 1.1 Implications of the Information and Knowledge Society for Education 5 Ronald E. Anderson

The Information Society 5 The Knowledge Society 5 Information vs. Knowledge 6 Knowledge Societies in Education 6 Implications of the Knowledge Society for Learning Priorities 7 ICT 8 The Twenty-First Century Skills Movement 9 Parallels in Education and Management 10 Some Knowledge-Based Models in Education 11 The Emerging Pedagogical Practices Paradigm 12 Student Knowledge Framework 12 Knowledge-Related Skills 13 Knowledge-Related Task Phases 14 Knowledge Capabilities and ICT Tools 15 Knowledge Societies and Cooperative Work 18 Knowledge Societies and Learning to Learn 19 Implications for Education in the Era of Knowledge Societies 20

v 1.2 New Literacies for the Knowledge Society 23

David Mioduser, Rafi Nachmias, and Alona Forkosh-Baruch Introduction 23 The Knowledge Society 24 The New Literacies 26 Basic Issues Underlying Our Discussion of the New Literacies 27 Seven Literacies for the Knowledge Society 29 Epilogue 38 1.3 Theoretical Perspectives Influencing the Use of Information Technology in Teaching and Learning 43 Chris Dede

Overview 43 Behaviorist Instructional Technologies 46 Cognitivist Instructional Technologies 48 Constructivist Instructional Technologies 50 Next-Generation Pedagogical Media 53 Illustrative Historic Controversies About Technology and Pedagogy 54 Conclusion 59 1.4 Students in a Digital Age: Implications of ICT for Teaching and Learning 63 John Ainley, Laura Enger, and Dara Searle

Introduction 63 ICT Use: Access and Confidence 63 Behavioural Engagement 70 Emotional Engagement 73 Cognitive Engagement 75 ICT and Learning 76 Conclusion 78 Note 79 1.5 Traditional and Emerging IT Applications for Learning 81

J. Enrique Hinostroza, Christian Labbé, Leonardo López, and Hans Iost

Introduction 81 General Background: IT in Education 82 Potential Impacts of IT 84 Factors Affecting the Use of IT for Learning 86 Trends in Emerging Technologies and Learning 90 Conclusions 93 1.6 Driving Forces for ICT in Learning 97

Alfons ten Brummelhuis and Els Kuiper

Introduction 97 Conceptual Framework 97 Example of a Contrasting Position in Instructional Practices: Teacher or Student as Regulating the Learning Process 104 Discussion: Technology Push vs. Educational Pull 107

Section 2 IT and Curriculum Processes 115

Section Editor: Joke Voogt 2.1 IT and Curriculum Processes: Dilemmas and Challenges 117

Joke Voogt

A Curricular Perspective on IT in Education 117 Rationales for IT in Education 118 Learning to Use IT 118 Using IT to Learn 120 Current Use of IT in the Curriculum 121 Realizing the Potential of IT in the Curriculum 122 Innovative IT-Supported Pedagogical Practices 124 The Attained Curriculum: Student Outcomes from Learning with IT 127 Conclusions 128 2.2 Impact of IT on Science Education 133

Mary Webb

Introduction 133 The Use and Impact of IT on Science Learning in Schools 134 Evidence for How IT Enables Science Learning 134 Pedagogies with IT in Science 140 IT Use and the Nature of the Science Curriculum 143 Implications for Teachers and Curriculum Developers 143 Conclusions: Ways Forward for Science Education with IT 144 2.3 The Potential of IT to Foster Literacy Development in Kindergarten 149

Judy Van Scoter

Introduction 149 Literacy Development 150 IT and Literacy Development 150 Word Processing 151 Hypertext and Reading Potential in the Classroom 152 Integrated Learning Systems and Drill and Practice 153 Integrating IT in the Kindergarten Classroom 154 Print-Rich Environment 155 Technology Center 155 IT and the Classroom Reading Corner 155 Connection with Real Worlds 156 Products and Presentations 156 Technology and Literacy in the Inclusion Classroom 156 Implementation Concerns 157 Technology as a Benign Addition 158 2.4 Innovative Pedagogical Practices Using Technology: The Curriculum Perspective 163 Rafi Nachmias, David Mioduser, and Alona Forkosh-Baruch 2.5 Changing Assessment Practices and the Role of IT 181

Ola Erstad

Introduction 181 Teaching, Learning, and Assessment 182 Assessment Practices, IT, and Change 183 Different Conceptions of IT and Assessment 184 Conclusion: Are We Changing Practices? 190 2.6 Information Technology Tools for Curriculum Development 195

Susan McKenney, Nienke Nieveen, and Allard Strijker

Curriculum Development Aided by Technology 195 Three Cases of IT Support for Curriculum Development 200 Future Directions 206

Section 3 IT and the Learning Process 213

Section Editor: Kwok-Wing Lai 3.1 ICT Supporting the Learning Process: The Premise, Reality, and Promise 215 Kwok-Wing Lai

Introduction 215 The Learning Process and ICT Use 216 Research on ICT Effects 217 ICT and Learning Environments 218 Computer-Supported Learning Environments 220 Conclusion 227 3.2 Interactive Learning Environments: Review of an Old Construct with a New Critical Twist 231 Mark Brown

Introduction 231 Origin of Interactive Learning Environments 231 What is the Domain of Interactive Learning Environments? 233 What Assumptions Underpin Instructional Design? 235 Digging a Little Deeper 237 Connecting the Metaphors 239 Cleaning Up a Messy Construct 240 Mind Tools for Instruction 242 Mind Tools for Construction 243 Mind Tools for Inquiry 243 Mind Tools for Community 244 Interaction for What Kind of Future 244 Conclusion 245 3.3 Online Learning Communities in K-12 Settings 249 Seng Chee Tan, Lay Hoon Seah, Jennifer Yeo, and David Hung

Introduction 249 Defining Online Learning Communities 250 Theoretical Foundations of Learning in Online Communities 253 Review of Studies on Online Learning Communities in K-12 Settings 254 Knowledge Building Community 254 Quest Atlantis 256 Virtual Math Team (VMT) Project 256 The Web-Based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) 257 Comparison of the Four Online Learning Communities 258 Pertinent Research and Implementation Issues 261 Conclusion 263 3.4 Collaborative Learning and Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Environments 267 Maarit Arvaja, Päivi Häkkinen, and Marja Kankaanranta

Introduction: Collaboration Defined 267 Research Traditions on Collaborative Learning 269 What is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning? 270 Challenges of CSCL 272 Structuring Collaboration to Overcome Challenges in CSCL 273 Methodological Issues with CSCL Research 274 Conclusions 275 3.5 Computer Contexts for Supporting Metacognitive Learning 281

Xiaodong Lin and Florence R. Sullivan

Common Metacognitive Learning Outcomes 281 Recall and Memory 282 Content and Domain Subject Learning 284 Social Interactions as Learning Mechanisms 290 Conclusion 295 3.6 Collaborative Inquiry and Knowledge Building in Networked Multimedia Environments 299 Carol K.K. Chan and Jan van Aalst

Introduction 299 Changing Theories and Metaphors of Learning 300 Views of Learning Underpinning Multimedia and Networked Learning Environments 302 Classroom Innovations in Networked Multimedia Environments 305 Theoretical, Pedagogical, and Methodological Issues 310

Section 4 IT Competencies and Attitudes 319

Section Editors: Gerald Knezek and Rhonda Christensen 4.1 The Importance of Information Technology Attitudes and Competencies in Primary and Secondary Education 321 Gerald Knezek and Rhonda Christensen

Introduction 321 Role of Attitudes 322 Requirements of Competency 322 Verification Through Standards and Tests 323 Concerns About Overstandardization 323 The Need for Asking Good Questions 324 Theoretical/Conceptual Foundations 324 Formal Models of Attitudes and Achievement 326 Self Report and Observation Measures for Determining Attitudes and Competencies Toward Technology 327 Summary and Conclusions 328 4.2 Information, Communications, and Educational Technology Standards for Students, Teachers, and School Leaders 333 Lajeane G. Thomas and Donald G. Knezek

Rationale for Information and Communication Technology Standards 333 Establishing New Learning Environments Supported with Technology 335 ICT Standards for Students 335 Barriers to Adoption of Standards for Students 335 New Skill Sets for Teachers 337 ISTE National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers 339 ICT Standards for School and School-System Leaders of K-12 Education 341 Preparation of Specialists for Leadership in ICT 344 Essential Conditions to Support ICT in Educational Environments 345 Potential for Catalytic Change 345 Summary and Conclusions 347 4.3 Self-Report Measures and Findings for Information Technology Attitudes and Competencies 349 Rhonda Christensen and Gerald Knezek

Introduction 349 Self-Report and Survey Research 349 Self-Report vs. Observation 350 Assessing the Magnitude of Self-Report Findings 351 Findings 352 Student Attitudes and Competencies 357 Discussion 359 Summary and Conclusions 359 4.4 Observation Measures for Determining Attitudes and Competencies Toward Technology 367 Renate Schulz-Zander, Michael Pfeifer, and Andreas Voss

Introduction 367 Observation as an Approach to Researching IT Competencies and Attitudes 368 A Synthesis of Empirical Research Results 372 Conclusions 377 4.5 Computer Attitudes and Competencies Among Primary and Secondary School Students 381 Martina Meelissen

Introduction 381 Measuring Computer Attitudes 382 Students Computer Attitudes 384 The Influence of the Social Environment 386 Students Computer Competencies 390 Summary and Prospects for Future Research 391 4.6 Characteristics of Teacher Leaders for Information and Communication Technology 397

Margaret Riel and Henry Jay Becker

Introduction 397 Teacher Leadership and Professional Engagement 398 Describing a Route to Teacher Leadership 400 Teachers Leaders Represent the Highest Level of Professional Engagement 403 Variation in Professional Engagement: Findings from the TLC Study 404 Teacher Leaders Beliefs About Teaching and Learning 405 Leadership-Inspired Instruction 406 Teacher Leaders Use of Computers: TLC Study Findings 408 Studies of Teacher Leadership Among Technology-Expert Teachers 410 Dimensions of Teacher Technology Leadership 412 Toward a Culture of Teacher Leadership with Technology 414

Section 5 IT, Pedagogical Innovations, and Teacher Learning 421

Section Editor: Nancy Law 5.1 Teacher Learning Beyond Knowledge for Pedagogical Innovations with ICT 425

Nancy Law Introduction 425 ICT as a Disruptive Force in Pedagogical Innovations 427 Teacher Learning for Pedagogical Innovation with ICT: Beyond Knowledge 429 Teacher Learning Through Innovations Conceptualization of Support for Teacher Learning Beyond Knowledge 431 5.2 Benchmarks for Teacher Education Programs in the Pedagogical Use of ICT 435

Paul Kirschner, Theo Wubbels, and Mieke Brekelmans

Introduction 435 The Pedagogy and Effects of Teacher Education 436 Benchmarks 438 Discussion 444 5.3 Factors Affecting Teachers Pedagogical Adoption of ICT 449

Bridget Somekh

Insights from Socio-Cultural Theory 449 The Processes of Pedagogical Adoption of ICT 451 Examples of Transformative Pedagogies with ICT 453 The Shaping of ICT-Mediated Pedagogies by National Culture 455 Providing a Context that Supports the Pedagogic Adoption of ICT 457 Integrating Research with the Pedagogic Adoption of ICT 458 5.4 Models and Practices in Teacher Education Programs for Teaching with and about IT 461

Anne McDougall

Introduction 461 Goals, Purposes and Aims of Teacher Education Programs 462 Structures and Strategies 466 Evaluation of Teacher Education and Professional Development Programs 471 Conclusion 472 5.5 Multimedia Cases, Teacher Education and Teacher Learning 475

Ellen van den Berg, John Wallace, and Erminia Pedretti

Introduction 475 Cases, Teacher Learning and Knowledge 475 A Typology of Multimedia Cases: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Use 480 Anchoring Multimedia Cases in Teacher Education Programs 483 Conclusions 485 5.6 Communities of Practice for Continuing Professional Development in the Twenty-First Century 489

Chee-Kit Looi, Wei-Ying Lim, and Wenli Chen Challenges that Teacher Professional Development Face 489 Community of Practice as an Effective Professional Development Strategy 490 CoPs for Continuing Professional Development in the Twenty-First Century 492 Online Community of Practice for Teachers Professional Development 493 Design Tenets for Building CoPs in the Twenty-First Century 494 Technology Architecture Supporting Establishment of CoPs 498 Teacher Professional Identity Formation in CoPs 501 Conclusion 502 5.7 How May Teacher Learning Be Promoted For Educational Renewal with IT? 507

Niki Davis

Introduction 507 A Global Perspective 508 Schools Local Area as an Ecology 510 A School Perspective 511 The IT Coordinator 512 A Teacher Innovating with IT 513 Simultaneous Renewal of Preservice Teacher Education and K-12 Schools 515 Summary and Conclusions 516

Part Two

Section 6 IT in Schools 541

Section Editor: Sara Dexter 6.1 Leadership for IT in Schools 543

Sara Dexter

Introduction 543 Dimensions and Aims of IT Leadership 543 IT Leadership to Set Direction 545 IT Leadership to Develop People 546 IT Leadership to Make the Organization Work 548 Roles and Responsibilities in IT Leadership Teams 549 Conclusion 551 6.2 Framing IT Use to Enhance Educational Impact on a School-Wide Basis 555 Peter Twining

Introduction Importance of Consistent Understandings 555 Frameworks for Thinking About IT in Education 556 Achievement Frameworks 557 Cognitive Frameworks 559 Software Frameworks 559 Pedagogical Frameworks 563 Evolutionary Frameworks 568 Conclusions 574 6.3 Quality Support for ICT in Schools 579

Neal Strudler and Doug Hearrington Introduction 579 Need for and Aspects of ICT Support 580 Teacher Professional Development 583 Staffing for ICT Support 585 Support Staff 588 Conclusions 593 6.4 Distributed Leadership and IT 597

Nigel Bennett

Introduction 597 Analysing the Elements of Leadership 597 Moving on from Top Down Leadership 602 Distributed Leadership 603 So What? Distributed Leadership and IT in Schools 610 6.5 Total Cost of Ownership and Total Value of Ownership 615

Kathryn Moyle

Introduction 615 Policy Contexts 616 Data-Driven Decision-Making 618 Measuring Data 619 Cost, Value and Impact 622 Conclusion 628 6.6 The Logic and Logic Model of Technology Evaluation 633

Yong Zhao, Bo Yan, and Jing Lei

Introduction 633 A Critical Appraisal of the Evaluation Literature 635 Where Are We Now? 642 A Proposal for Moving Forward: A Logic Model for Evaluating Technology 644 Conclusion 651

Section 7 IT and Distance Learning in K-12 Education 657

Section Editors: Roumen Nikolov and Iliana Nikolova 7.1 Distance Education in Schools: Perspectives and Realities 659

Roumen Nikolov and Iliana Nikolova

Introduction 659 Defining the Area 660 The Phenomenon of ICT-Based Distance Education in K-12 Schools 661 The ICT-Driven Educational Reform 662 Virtual Learning Environments for ICT-Based DE 665 Pedagogical Dimensions for VLEs in ICT-Based Distance Education in K-12 Education 667 Effectiveness of ICT-Based Distance Education 669 The Future of ICT-Based Distance Education 670 Conclusions 672 7.2 Pedagogical Principles, Problems, and Possibilities in Online Global Classrooms 675 Malcolm Beazley, Julie McLeod, and Lin Lin

Introduction 675 Pedogogical Principles 676 Problems 683 Possibilities 689 Concluding Remarks 691 7.3 Virtual Schools: Redefining A Place Called School 695

M.D. Roblyer

Introduction: Virtual Schools as Defining Initiative 695 Background on Virtual Schooling 696 Current Virtual School Issues 701 Research on Virtual School Implementation and Impact 704 Challenges for the Future of Virtual Schools 706 Conclusion 709 7.4 Distance Learning Enrichment: A Pacific Perspective 713

John H. Southworth, Curtis P. Ho, and Shigeru Narita

Introduction 713 DL-E Applications in the 1970s 715 New Developments in the 1980s and 1990s 716 DL-E Projects in the Twenty-First Century 717 Fostering Cultural Awareness 719 Techniques for Classroom Technology Integration Using DL-E 720 Assessment of Added Value of DL-E 722 Concluding Remarks 722 7.5 Technology and Open Learning: The Potential of Open Education Resources for K-12 Education 725 Neil Butcher and Merridy Wilson-Strydom

Introduction 725 Distance Education and Open Schooling 726 Open Learning 729 Technology and Open Learning 733 Open Education Resources (OER) 735 OERs in Action: A Practical Example from the K-12 Sector 741 Conclusion 742 7.6 Online Professional Development for Teachers 747

Márta Turcsányi-Szabó Introduction 747 Teacher Training in Europe and Beyond 749 Virtual and Distance Learning for Teachers 750 Trends in Knowledge Delivery 751 Lessons Learned in Asia and The Pacific Region 753 The Case of Hungary 754 Conclusion 758

Section 8 IT and the Digital Divide 763

Section Editors: Thérèse Laferrière and Paul Resta 8.1 Issues and Challenges Related to Digital Equity 765

Paul Resta and Thérèse Laferrière

Introduction 765 Conceptual Framework 766 Issues and Challenges 768 Conclusion 775 8.2 Gender and Information Technology 779

E. Dianne Looker

Introduction 779 Identifying the Issues The Developed World 779 Identifying the Issues The Developing World 780 Why is This Important? 781 Educational Interventions 782 Conclusion 785 Further Research 786 8.3 Meeting the Learning Needs of All Learners Through IT 789

Jutta Treviranus and Vera Roberts

Introduction 789 Assistive Technologies 789 Guidelines and Specifications 790 Accessibility Guidelines of the World Wide Web Consortium 790 Metadata 792 Matching the Resource to the Needs of the Learner Through Metadata 793 Transformation 795 Reusable Learning Resources 796 Content-Free Activity Templates 798 Accessibility in Practice 799 Challenges 800 Conclusions 800 8.4 Critical Success Factors in Moving Toward Digital Equity 803

Joyce Pittman, Robert T. McLaughlin, and Bonnie Bracey-Sutton Introduction 803 Example Cases: Initiatives that Have Made Progress in Moving Toward Digital Equity in Different Global Contexts 804 Success Factors for Moving Toward Digital Equity 812 Future Trends and Challenges in Moving Toward Digital Equity 814 8.5 The Relationship of Technology, Culture, and Demography 819

Loriene Roy, Hsin-liang Chen, Antony Cherian,

and Teanau Tuiono

Introduction 819 Historic Information on Incorporation of Technology by Indigenous Peoples 819 What Are the Relations Between IT and Indigenous Cultures? 822 A Final Word: Cultural Protocol and Balancing Local Control and Access to Intellectual Content 829 8.6 Global Partnerships Enhancing Digital and Social Equity 833

Ian W. Gibson

Shrinking World: Global Responsibility 833 The Potential of Technology in Redefining Access to Learning Opportunities 834 Benefits of International Participation: An Example 836 Preparing Teachers for the Future: A Focus on Teacher Education 840 Benefits and Conclusions 842

Section 9 Emerging Technologies for Education 847

Section Editors: Cathleen Norris and Elliot Soloway 9.1 An Instructional Model That Exploits Pervasive Computing 849

Cathleen Norris and Elliot Soloway

Introduction 849 The Current Situation: Limited-Access Computing 850 The Transition to Pervasive Computing: Predicting a Disruption 850 The Elements of a Pervasive Computing Infrastructure 851 Pervasive Computing Enables Project-Based Learning 852 An Example of Virtual Learning Environment to Support Project-Based Learning 854 Concluding Remarks 859 9.2 M-Learning in Africa: Doing the Unthinkable and Reaching the Unreachable 861 Tom H. Brown Introduction 861 Why M-Learning in Africa? 862 Overview of Current M-Learning Activities in Africa 863 Examples of M-Learning in Africa 864 Premises for M-Learning in Africa: Lessons Learnt from Pilot Studies at the University of Pretoria 867 Conclusion 870 9.3 Personal, Mobile, Connected: The Future of Learning 873

Mark van t Hooft

Introduction 873 Rethinking Teaching, Learning, and Technology 875 Rethinking Teaching 875 Rethinking Learning 876 Rethinking Technology 877 An Example 878 Conclusion 879 9.4 Use of Wireless Mobile Technology to Bridge the Learning Divide 883 Mohamed Ally

Introduction 883 Capabilities of Wireless Mobile Technology 884 The Design of Learning Materials for Wireless Mobile Technology Devices 884 Use of Wireless Mobile Technologies in Practice 886 Conclusion 887 9.5 Information Technologies for Informal Learning in Museums and Out-of-School Settings 891 Sherry Hsi

Introduction 891 IT Transforming Informal Learning Institutions 892 IT Extending the Museum Experience (Pre- and Post Activities) 893 IT for Distant Learners and Browsers of Museum Experience 894 Informal Learning Transforming IT Activities 896 Trends for the Future 898 9.6 Emerging Technologies for Collaborative, Mediated, Immersive Learning 901 Jody Clarke, Chris Dede, and Ed Dieterle

Introduction 901 How Collaborative Mediated Immersion Helps Teaching and Learning 902 Multi-user Virtual Environments 903 Augmented Reality 905 Conclusion 907 9.7 Three-Dimensional Computer-Based Online Learning Environments 911 James G. Jones and Scott J. Warren Introduction 911 3D Computer-Based Multiuser Online Environments 911 Educational Environments 913 Cognitive Scaffolding 916 Educational Affordances 916 The Future of and Barriers to Educational Integration 917 9.8 Trace Theory, Coordination Games, and Group Scribbles 921

Charles M. Patton, Deborah Tatar, and Yannis Dimitriadis

Coordination in Learning 921 Group Scribbles 922 Group Scribbles and Coordination: Key Aspects of Design Enable a Focus on Coordination 925 Using Trace Theory to Describe and Specify Coordination Structures in Group Scribbles 927 Alternative Versions of the Jigsaw Pattern 930 Summary, Conclusions, and Future Research 932 9.9 One-to-One Educational Computing: Ten Lessons for Successful Implementation 935 Kyle Peck and Karl Sprenger

Introduction 935 Lesson One: Focus on an Expanded Educational Vision 936 Lesson Two: Expand Participation and Commitment 936 Lesson Three: Think Software, THEN Hardware 937 Lesson Four: Embrace Professional Development 938 Lesson Five: Re-assess Infrastructure Needs 938 Lesson Six: Focus on Functionality and an Always Up Learning Environment 939 Lesson Seven: Minimize the Number of Vendors 939 Lesson Eight: Have an Insurance Plan 939 Lesson Nine: Be Prepared to Add Technical Support Staff 940 Lesson Ten: Assess Morale and Prepare for Turbulence 940 Conclusion 941 9.10 Making the Most of One-to-One Computing in Networked Classrooms 943 William R. Penuel

Potential of Classroom Networks 943 Which Way the Future? 947 9.11 Graphing Calculators: Enhancing Math Learning for All Students 951 Jeremy Roschelle and Corrine Singleton Introduction 951 Features of Graphing Calculators 952 Alignment of Graphing Calculators with Standards and Practices 953 Pedagogical Affordances of Graphing Calculators 954 Research on Graphing Calculators