Perspectives on Environment and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Applications

Section I. Introduction.- 1. Origins and Directions of Environment-Behavioral Research.- An Overview of Ecological and Environmental Psychology.- Ecological Psychology.- Environmental Psychology.- Toward an Integrated Field of Environment and Behavior.- Core Themes of Environment-Behavioral Research.- Directions for Future Research and Theoretical Development.- Summary.- References.- Section II. Ecological Psychology.- 2. Behavioral Ecology.- Some Background.- Some General Implications.- Defining Attributes of Behavioral Ecology.- Naturalism in Methodology.- Distributions of Phenomena.- Behavioral Focus.- Environment and Behavior.- Site Specificity and Place Dependencies.- Ecological Diagnosis.- Systems Concepts and Analogies.- Long Time Periods.- Taxonomy.- Molar Phenomena and Nonreductionism.- Transdisciplinary Emphasis.- Habitability.- Small Rates.- Evaluation of Natural Experiments.- Concluding Comments.- References.- 3. From Church to Laboratory to National Park: A Program of Research on Excess and Insufficient Populations in Behavior Settings.- Behavior Settings.- Manning Theory.- A Reformulation of the Manning Notions.- Questions for Research.- A Laboratory Study of Manning.- A Follow-up Laboratory Study of Manning.- Design, Equipment, and Procedure.- Dependent Variables.- Observation Scheme.- Subjects.- Results.- Effects of Manning Conditions.- Interrelationships Between Dependent Variables.- Conclusions from the Completed Research.- Focus on Service Behavior Settings.- Effects of Staffing and Population Levels on Occupants of Service Behavior Settings.- Conceptual Considerations.- Empirical Research.- Adaptive Mechanisms for Avoiding or Reducing Overpopulation of Service Behavior Settings.- Conceptual Considerations.- Empirical Research.- Postscript.- Acknowledgments.- References.- Section III. Environmental Psychology.- 4. Environmental Psychology: Origins and Development.- Environmental Psychology: Some History.- Factors Underlying the Emergence of Environmental Psychology.- Value-Methodological Properties of the Field.- The Future of Environmental Psychology: Some Analysis and Speculation.- Conferences.- References.- 5. Behavioral and Physiological Effects of Uncontrollable Environmental Events.- Noise and Task Performance.- Aftereffects of Unpredictable Noise.- Perceived Control over Noise.- Perceived Control and Helplessness.- Other Stressors.- Psychic Costs of Stress.- Uncontrollable Events and Coronary Heart Disease.- Pattern A and CHD.- Pattern A, Uncontrollable Events, and CHD.- Directions for Future Research.- Concluding Remarks.- References.- 6. Beyond the Effects of Crowding: Situational and Individual Differences.- Demographic Data.- Research on Crowding.- Determinants of the Effects of Crowding.- Crowding Effects as a Function of Architecture and Personal Territory.- Crowding Effects as a Function of Type of Activity.- Crowding Effects as a Function of Individual Differences.- Psychological Effects as a Function of Relationship to the Environment.- A Model of Social and Spatial Crowding Stresses.- Summary.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 7. Simulation Techniques in Environmental Psychology.- Varieties of Environmental Simulation.- Development of the Berkeley Environmental Simulation Laboratory.- Uses of Dynamic Perceptual Simulation.- The Environmental Decision-Maker as Applied Psychologist.- The Everyday Environment as a Complex, Multidimensional Entity.- Validation of the Berkeley Simulator.- Further Development and Application.- References.- Section IV. Applications of Behavioral Research to Environmental Design.- 8. Action Research.- References.- 9. From Congruence to Antecedent Conditions: A Search for the Basis of Environmental Improvement.- Congruence.- The Context of Man-Environment Relations I.- The Context of Man-Environment Relations II.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 10. Participation in the Design Process: A Cognitive Approach.- Problem Solving and the Expert.- On Some Intellectual Asse