Parental Care in Mammals

'1 Origins of Parental Care.- 1. Parental Care Is Widespread.- 2. Factors Influencing Parental Care Strategy.- 2.1. r and K Selection.- 2.2. Phyletic Continuity and Morphological Constraints.- 3. Patterns of Parenting.- 4. Adaptiveness and Patterns of Parental Care.- References.- 2 Factors Governing the Onset and Maintenance of Maternal Behavior among Nonprimate Mammals: The Role of Hormonal and Nonhormonal Factors.- 1. Onset of Maternal Behavior.- 1.1. Hormonal Regulation of Pregnancy.- 1.2. Hormonal Stimulation of Maternal Behavior.- 2. The Regulation of Postpartum Maternal Behavior.- 3. Maternal Behavior in Nonpregnant Females.- 4. Transition in the Regulation of Maternal Behavior between the Onset and Maintenance Phases.- 5. Maternal Aggression: Pre- and Postpartum Regulation.- 6. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 3 Parental Contributions to the Development of Their Offspring.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Strategies for Demonstrating Long-Term Parental Effects on Development of Young.- 2.1. Maternal Deprivation.- 2.2. Selective Breeding.- 2.3. Stressed Parents.- 2.4. Premature Separation.- 2.5. Interspecies Parenting.- 2.6. Effects Visited upon Subsequent Generations.- 3. The Prenatal Relationship.- 4. The Postnatal Relationship.- 4.1. Facial Communication in Blind Infants.- 4.2. Levels of Stimulation and Infant Behavioral Arousal.- 4.3. Regulation of Rhythmic Functions of the Infant.- 4.4. Regulation of the Onset of Puberty.- 4.5. Regulation of Infant Autonomic Function.- 4.6. Regulation of Brain Enzymes and Growth.- 5. Implications for Aberrant Development.- 5.1. Maternal Separation Revisited.- 5.2. Self-Correcting Tendencies.- 6. Conclusion.- References.- 4 Offspring Effects upon Parents.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Phylogenesis: Inclusive Fitness and Parental Investment.- 2.1. Inclusive Fitness and the Cost of Parental Investment.- 2.2. Sex Differences in Parental Responsiveness.- 3. Function: Social Consequences and Ecological Correlates of Parenting.- 3.1. Kin, the "Con," and Contractual Obligations.- 3.2. Ecological and Social Correlates.- 4. Changes during the Life Cycle.- 4.1. Age-Related Changes.- 4.2. Prior Experience.- 5. Mechanisms: Effects of Offspring on Parental Responsiveness.- 5.1. The Setting as a Determinant of Offspring Effects.- 5.2. Effects of Offspring upon Parental State.- 5.3. Comment.- 6. Stimulus Effects of Offspring.- 6.1. Age- and Sex-Related Signals Controlling Parenting.- 6.2. Analysis According to Sensory Modality.- 7. Filial Behavior.- References.- 5 Maternal Aggression in Mammals.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Some Naturalistic Observations of Maternal Aggression.- 3. Laboratory Studies of Maternal Aggression.- 3.1. Topography of Maternal Aggression.- 3.2. Stimuli Eliciting Maternal Aggression.- 3.3. Experiential Influences on Maternal Aggression.- 3.4. Psychobiological Determinants of Mater Aggression.- 4. A Psychobiological Model of Maternal Aggression in the Mouse.- 4.1. Substrate Preparation Phase (Conception to Parturition).- 4.2. Postpartum Initiation Phase (Parturition to Postpartum Day 2).- 4.3. Postpartum Maintenance Phase (Postpartum Days 2-21).- 5. Relationship to Defense of Young and Population Dynamics.- 6. General Conclusions.- References.- 6 The Ecology of Weaning: Parasitism and the Achievement of Independence by Altricial Mammals.- 1. An Overview of Weaning.- 1.1. Mother-Young Interaction.- 1.2. Development of Behavior.- 1.3. Parasitism: An Analogy to the Life Strategy of the Altricial Juvenile Mammal.- 2. The Rat Pup as Parasite.- 2.1. The Environment Provided by the Host: Parental Investment by the Dam.- 2.2. The Rat Pup as Obligate, Passive Ectoparasite-Day 5 Postpartum.- 2.3. The Rat Pup as Facultative, Active Ectoparasite-Day 18 Postpartum.- 2.4. The Juvenile Rat as Commensal-Day 40 Postpartum.- 3. Conclusion.- References.- 7 Parent and Infant Attachment in Mammals.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Wh