Bhutan: Conservation and Environmental Protection in the Himalayas

FOREWORD by Dr Lotay Tshering, Prime Minister, Royal Government of Bhutan

PREFACE by H.E. Lyonpo Yeshey Penjore, Honourable Minister for Agriculture and Forest, Royal Government of Bhutan

CHAPTER 1:  STATE OF ENVIRONMENT IN BHUTAN           

Abstract          1

Overview of Bhutan   1

Ecological Zones & Climatic Features           4

Land Use in Bhutan   5

Source: FRMD/DOFPS 10

Conservation  Efforts & Protected Area Systems     10

Conservation Laws and Policies        13

Assessment of Non-Protected Areas            14

Sustainable Forest Management Plans in Non-protected Area      15

Scientific Forest Management           16

Community Forest Empowerment    16

Non-Wood Forest Product (NWFP) Management    17

Plantation and Reforestation Programs       18

Keystone species and Conservation Areas   18

Foot Notes      18

Annexure 1.1 Classification and Characteristics of Vegetation Zones in Bhutan (Grierson & Long, 1983, see 19) 22

Annexure 1.2 Description of Classification of Land Cover Class and Sub-Class in Bhutan (See 20)           25

CHAPTER 2:  DRIVERS AND PRESSURE ON THE STATE OF ENVIRONMENT IN BHUTAN   

Abstract          27

Land Use         31

Hydropower projects 32

Farm Roads    33

Mining and Mineral Development:   36

Land use for Agriculture        38

Waste Management  42

Figure 2.6 Waste Generated (tons/day) Dzongkhag wise    44

Fuel wood consumption        45

Fig. 2.7 Fuel Wood Supply in Bhutan            46

Timber Production     47

Forest Fires     51

Livestock Grazing       52

Air Pollution and Fossil Fuels:           54

Fig.  2.10 Fossil Fuel Consumption in Bhutan Source: Environment Accounting, 2018)    54

Demographic and Poverty factors:    61

Invasive Alien Plant Species  64

Climate change          66

Foot Notes (1- 157)    72

Annexure 2.1 List of Invasive Species in Bhutan      83

CHAPTER 3:  NON-VIOLENT TECHNIQUES FOR HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Abstract          88

Contextual Framework within the ACPB:     88

Methodology: 90

Global context of HWC          90

Conflict Management Strategies:      94

Retaliatory Actions and Violent Approaches           94

Lethal Control - Counterproductive 96

From Conflict to Co-existence           98

Safe and Non-Violent Approach       99

Table 3.1 Important Elements of HWC (WWF-Bhutan, 2016; See Foot Note 78)  99

Human Wildlife Conflict Policy         100

Implementing Agencies for HWC      102

Immune-contraception for population control       109

Translocation of Problem Animals   111

Alternative Livelihoods          113

Land-Use Planning and Landscape Management    113

Mitigation Measures 114

Compensation            115

Performance payments         117

Ecotourism and Revenue Sharing     119

Community Education           120

Understanding the Conflict Profile   121

Reporting        122

Information compilation, management and use:    123

Response - measures taken to alleviate a specific or ongoing HWC incident       123

Monitoring and Evaluation - measuring the performance of HWC management 124

Human Wildlife Conflict Situation in Bhutan          124

Underlying Forces of Human Wild-life Conflicts in Bhutan 124

Human Wildlife Conflict Situation in Bhutan          125

Preventive Measures 128

Mitigation Approach in Bhutan        131

Strategic Outcomes    132

Table 3.5 Strategic Intents contributing to the Safe System (WWF-Bhutan, 2016; See Foot Note 246).       132

Effective Monitoring and Evaluation            133

Conclusion and Recommendation    134

Non-violent and Safe Approach        134

Institutional Arrangement    135

Human Wildlife Conflict Policy & Legislation           136

Coping Techniques and Mechanisms           137

Hotspot Mapping       139

Physiological Sterilization of wildlife.           139

Table 3.6 Immunocontraceptive vaccines used in different animals:        141

Innovative Research Fund for farmers         142

Economic Responses to HWC           142

Alternative livelihoods          143

Regional Transboundary Conservation        143

Foot Notes      144

Annexure 3.1 Indicators of the Strategic Outcomes of People, Wildlife, Assets and Habitat            164

CHAPTER 4:  ANIMAL RIGHTS AND PROTECTION

Abstract          167

Buddhist Perspectives & Conservation Biology       174

Bhutanese Buddhism and the Segue To Contemporary Animal Protection Policies            177

National Law & Buddhist Ethics        179

State Monastic Body  181

Non-governmental Organizations (NGO)     182

Tshethar (Life Saving) Practices         183

Animal Health and Rescue Centers  185

Farming Systems and Livestock Population 186

Meat Consumption in Bhutan          188

Discussion and Recommendations on Animal Protection and Animal Rights       199

Animal Protection Policy of Bhutan  199

Population control of Livestock Animals      200

Institutionalization and Implementation Arrangement      200

Monitoring & Implementation         201

Dog Population Control         202

GNH Index for Animal Kingdom        205

References (1-125)     206

Annexure 4.1 God's Country: The New Zealand Factor, by Michael Charles Tobias and Jane Gray Morrison, Dancing Star Foundation, 2010.         215

CHAPTER 5:  GAP ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, RARE AND UNDER-REPRESENTED SPECIES IN BHUTAN

Abstract          222

Introduction   222

Impacts of Extinction of Species       226

Taxonomic Classification - Seven Kingdoms Model            227

Objectives       227

Methodology  227

Assessment of Under-Represented Species in Kingdoms    228

Under-Represented Species in Classification of Groups     231

Records of Species Groups under Animalia Kingdom          233

Vertebrates    233

Invertebrates  235

Species Groups under Plantae Kingdom      236

Tracheophytes           237

Chromista Kingdom   238

Fungi Kingdom           239

Protista Kingdom       241

Eubacteria Kingdom   242

Archaebacteria Kingdom       243

Assessment of Threatened Species  243

Conservation Status of Fish in Bhutan         246

Threatened Endemic Plants in Bhutan         247

Under-Representation of Medicinal Plants  276

Documentation of Agro-Biodiversity            277

Community Participation and Citizen Science         277

Discussion and Recommendations   278

Foot Notes      280

Annexure 5.1 List of Threatened Species of Plants (IUCN Status-2019)     284

Annexure 5.2 List of Threatened Species of Mammals in Bhutan (IUCN Status-2019)            285

Annexure 5.3 List of Threatened Species of Birds in Bhutan (IUCN) - 2019 NBC  287

Annexure 5.4 List of Threatened Fish Species          289

Annexure 5.5: List of Threatened Amphibian and Reptile Species 290

Annexure 5.6 Monotypic Species of Seed Plants under each Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species (Source Flora of Bhutan, Volume 1, 2 & 3)      290

CHAPTER 6:  CONSERVATION STRATEGY OF THREATENED AND UNDER-REPRESENTED MAMMALIAN SPECIES

Introduction.  293

Landscape Conservation Approach  293

Mammalian species   294

Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) Conservation        294

Recommendations for Conservation Strategies      295

Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius) Conservation     296

Recommendation for Conservation Strategy of Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius)          297

Alpine Musk Deer (Moschus Chrysogaster) and Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus leucogaster) Conservation    297

Recommendations for Conservation Strategy of Musk Deer          299

Dhole (Cuon alpinus) Conservation Strategy           299

Recommendations for Dhole Conservation Strategy          300

Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei) Conservation Strategy         301

Recommendation for Conservation Strategy of Golden Langur     301

Conservation of Arunachal Macaque (Macaca munzala)    302

Conservation of Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus)            303

Conservation of Hog Deer (Axis Porcinus)    303

Wild Water Buffalo (Bubalus arnee) Conservation 305

Discussion on Conservation of Bats 306

Foot Notes (1-131)     309

CHAPTER 7:  CONSERVATION OF THREATENED AND UNDER-REPRESENTED SPECIES OF PLANTS

Introduction   322

Endemic Plant Species           323

Monotypic Plant Species       323

Discussion on Threatened Orchids   323

Critically Endangered flowering plants         325

Endangered Flowering Plants:           325

Recommendations for Conservation Strategy of Plant Species      326

Conservation of Bryophytes  328

Ecological significance of Bryophytes           329

Economic Uses of Bryophytes           329

Medicinal Use of Bryophytes            329

Bryophytes as Pollution indicators   329

Bryophytes in Science and Education           330

Threats to Bryophytes           330

Lesser Known Timber Species in Bhutan      331

Foot Notes      332

Annexure 7.1   Most commonly used timber species (Source: FRMD/DoFPS)       337

Annexure 7.2  High value timber with less utilization (Source: FRMD/DoFPS)      338

CHAPTER 8:  CONSERVATION OF THREATENED BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES AND PARASITES

Birds Conservation    339

Conservation of White Bellied Heron (Ardea insignis)        340

Conservation of Vultures      341

Discussion on Conservation of White Winged Duck            342

Conservation Strategy of Baer's Pochard     342

Conservation Strategy of Eagles       343

Recommendations for Conservation Strategy of Threatened Birds           343

Conservation of Turtles         344

Importance of Turtle Conservation  345

Conservation Strategies        346

Conservation of Threatened Fish Species    346

CHAPTER 9:  CONSERVATION FOR FOOD SECURITY AND UNDER-REPRESENTED MICROBES

Abstract          362

Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources     362

Agro-Biodiversity Gene Banks           363

Preservation under Permafrost Conditions 363

Microbial Conservation Strategies    364

FOOT NOTES