Domestication of Radiata Pine

Preface.- Acknowledgements.- I. Introduction.- 1.1. Processes of domestication.- 1.2. The radiata pine story.- 1.2.1. Historical preview.- 1.2.2. Land races.- 1.2.3. The Development of plantation management.- 1.2.4. The step to intensive breeding.- 1.2.5. The political and institutional context for technical progress.- 1.2.6. The current radiata resource.- II. Early History: 7,000,000 Years Ago to 1901 C.E.- 2.1. Five small native forests.- 2.1.1. Mainland populations.- 2.1.1.1. Extent.- 2.1.1.2. Associate tree species and soils.- 2.1.2. Island populations.- 2.1.3. Paleohistory and taxonomy.- 2.3.1.1. Fossils and evolution.- 2.3.1.2. The naming of radiata pine.- 2.1.4. Native American impacts.- 2.1.5. Spanish, Mexican and Californian impacts.- 2.2. Early institutional and political factors in plantation forestry.- 2.2.1. Australia.- 2.2.2. New Zealand.- 2.2.2.1. Canterbury.- 2.2.2.2. The Wellington Botanic Garden.- 2.2.3. South Africa.- 2.2.4. Chile.- 2.3. Early plantings.- 2.3.1. European seed collections and plantings.- 2.3.2. Australia.- 2.3.3. New Zealand.- 2.3.3.1. Canterbury.- 2.3.3.2. Auckland.- 2.3.3.3. Elsewhere in New Zealand.- 2.3.4. South Africa.- 2.3.5. Chile.- 2.3.6. Spain and Portugal.- 2.3.7. The British Isles.- 2.3.8. Other countries.- 2.4. Summary of domestication progress.- III. The Early Plantation Period: 1901-1951.- 3.1. Why large plantation programs?.- 3.1.1. Australia.- 3.1.2. New Zealand.- 3.1.3. Elsewhere.- 3.2. The evolution of institutions that supported plantation development.- 3.2.1. Australia.- 3.2.1.1. South Australia.- 3.2.1.2. Victoria.- 3.2.1.3. New South Wales.- 3.2.1.4. Other States: Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania.- 3.2.2. New Zealand.- 3.2.2.1. The State Forest Service.- 3.2.2.2. Other public agencies.- 3.2.2.3. Private enterprise.- 3.2.2.4. Research and Development.- 3.2.3. Chile.- 3.3.4. South Africa.- 3.2.5. Spain.- 3.3. The choice of radiata pine.- 3.3.1. Australia: Ecological fit and commercial acceptance.- 3.3.1.1. South-eastern Australia.- 3.3.1.2. The edge: Queensland and Western Australia.- 3.3.2. New Zealand.- 3.3.3. South Africa.- 3.3.4. Chile.- 3.3.5. Spain.- 3.3.6. East and south-central Africa.- 3.3.7. Ecuador.- 3.3.8. Elsewhere.- 3.4. The development of plantation management.- 3.4.1. Nursery and planting practice.- 3.4.2. Soils and nutrition.- 3.4.3. Genetics of radiata pine.- 3.4.3.1. Early historical influences.- 3.4.3.2. The beginnings of purposeful intervention.- 3.4.4. Silviculture.- 3.5. Some alarms.- 3.6. Summary of domestication progress.- IV. The Beginnings of Genetic Improvement: 1951 to 1968.- 4.1. General Context.- 4.1.1. Australia.- 4.1.2. New Zealand.- 4.1.3. Chile.- 4.1.4. South Africa.- 4.1.5. Elsewhere.- 4.2. Introductory remarks on breeding.- 4.3. Theory.- 4.3.1. Some basic principles.- 4.3.2. Concepts and principles of quantitative genetics and breeding.- 4.4. The Scandinavian school of tree breeding.- 4.5. Institutional settings.- 4.5.1. USA.- 4.5.2. Australia.- 4.5.3. New Zealand.- 4.5.4. South Africa.- 4.6. Interim genetic improvement measures.- 4.7. Intensive breeding.- 4.7.1. Background.- 4.7.2. Traits chosen for early-generation selection.- 4.7.3. Regionalisation?.- 4.7.4. Clonal archives.- 4.7.5. Seed orchards.- 4.7.6. Genetic trials and mating designs in breeding programme.- 4.8. Vegetative propagation.- 4.9. Other studies.- 4.10. Programme reviews.- 4.11. Summary of domestication progress.- V. Development of the Management Concept While Tree Improvement shifts gears: 1969 to 1983.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Where which species will perform well.- 5.3. Institutional developments.- 5.3.1. Australia.- 5.3.2. New Zealand.- 5.3.3. South Africa.- 5.3.4. Chile.- 5.4. The context of intensified management practices.- 5.4.1. Introduction.- 5.4.2. Crop establishment.- 5.4.2.1. Seed collection.- 5.4.2.2. Natural regeneration.- 5.4.2.3. Direct seeding.- 5.4.2.4. Nursery behaviour and transplanting.- 5.4.2.5. Site preparation and weed control.- 5.4.2.6. Spacing.- 5.4.3. Use of fertilisers.- 5.4.4. Thinning and pruning regimes.- 5.4.4.1. Some problems with commercial thinning.- 5.4.4.2. Some lessons from South Africa.- 5.4.4.3. Towards radical changes in New Zealand.- 5.4.4.4. Practice in other countries.- 5.4.4.5. Longer-term follow-up.- 5.4.4.6. Tending regimes in perspective.- 5.5. Genetic improvement.- 5.5.1. Operational breeding activities.- 5.5.1.1. Australia.- 5.5.1.2. New Zealand.- 5.5.1.3. Chile.- 5.5.1.4. South Africa.- 5.5.2. Structuring and reshaping of breeding programmes.- 5.5.3. Tree breeding strategy and quantitative methodology.- 5.5.4. Quantitative genetic architecture.- 5.5.4.1. Population comparisons and action taken.- 5.5.4.2. Within-population variation.- 5.5.5. Breeding- and seed-orchard technology.- 5.5.6. Mass propagation by vegetative means.- 5.5.7. Demonstrating and quantifying genetic gains.- 5.6. Summary of domestication progress.- VI. Towards More Precise Genetic Control: 1984-1997.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. Institutions.- 6.2.1. History and usefulness of cooperatives.- 6.2.2. Institutional changes in individual countries.- 6.2.2.1. Australia.- 6.2.2.2. New Zealand.- 6.2.2.3. Chile.- 6.2.2.4. Other countries.- 6.3. Developments in planting and silviculture.- 6.3.1. Planting activity.- 6.3.2. Silviculture.- 6.3.2.1. Overview.- 6.3.2.2. Some rethinking on the 'radical' regimes.- 6.4. Activities and progress in operational genetic improvement.- 6.4.1. Orchard developments.- 6.4.2. Breeding work.- 6.4.2.1. Australia.- 6.4.2.2. New Zealand.- 6.4.2.3. Chile.- 6.4.2.4. Other countries.- 6.5. Delivery of improved seed.- 6.6. Demonstration of economic payoffs from breeding.- 6.6.1. Field performance.- 6.6.2. Impacts on growing costs.- 6.6.3. Impacts on financial returns.- 6.6.4. Certification of improved genetic material.- 6.6.4.1. New Zealand.- 6.6.4.2. Australia.- 6.7. Increased knowledge of genetic architecture.- 6.7.1. Variation among the natural populations.- 6.7.1.1. New Zealand.- 6.7.1.2. Australia.- 6.7.1.3. Other countries trialling the 1978 native-stand seed collections.- 6.7.2. Within-population variation and inheritance.- 6.7.2.1. Non-additive inheritance of individual traits.- 6.7.2.2. Age-age correlations.- 6.7.2.3. Genotype x environment interaction.- 6.7.2.4. Additional wood properties beyond density.- 6.7.2.5. Inheritance of basic wood properties.- 6.7.2.6. Relationships between basic wood properties and processing- and product-performance properties.- 6.7.2.7. Direct inheritance of processing- and product-performance properties.- 6.8. Propagation options increase.- 6.8.1. The evolution and decline of seed orchards.- 6.8.2. Vegetative propagation and its objectives.- 6.8.2.1. Vegetative multiplication of young seedlings.- 6.8.2.2. In-vitro culture systems.- 6.9. Clonal forestry beckons again.- 6.10. Evolution of breeding goals.- 6.10.1. Shifts in emphasis on various traits.- 6.10.2. Breed and multiclonal variety specialisation.- 6.11. Deployment options multiply.- 6.12. Developments in breeding strategy and population management.- 6.12.1. Implementation of sublining.- 6.12.2. Developments in breed differentiation and stratifying breeding populations.- 6.12.3. Coping with increased population complexity.- 6.12.4. Cloned breeding populations?.- 6.13. The molecular revolution develops momentum.- 6.13.1. Background.- 6.13.2. The search for individual genes and their desired alleles.- 6.13.3. The pursuit of molecular-based genetic engineering.- 6.14. Summary of domestication progress.- 6.15. References.- VII. A Wild Ride: 1998 Onwards.- 7.1. Introduction.- 7.2. Institutional developments.- 7.2.1. Forest ownership and activity.- 7.2.2. R & D Organisations.- 7.2.3. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs).- 7.3. Forestry activity and problems.- 7.3.1. New planting and retirements.- 7.3.2. Developments in forest growing practices.- 7.3.3. New decision-aid software and remote-sensing technology.- 7.3.4. Harvesting and log segregation.- 7.3.5. Biotic alarms.- 7.3.6. Weeds and related issues.- 7.3.7. The advent of 'carbon forestry'?.- 7.4. Operational breeding and deployment activities.- 7.4.1. Australia.- 7.4.2. New Zealand.- 7.4.3. Chile.- 7.4.4. South Africa.- 7.4.5. Spain.- 7.5. Demonstration and marketing of genetic gain.- 7.5.1. Gain.- 7.5.1.1. Individual-tree performance.- 7.5.1.2. Crop-level gains.- 7.5.2. Certification and assurance.- 7.5.2.1. New Zealand.- 7.5.2.2. Australia.- 7.5.3. Economic returns.- 7.6. Advances in knowledge of genetic architecture.- 7.6.1. Variation among natural populations.- 7.6.2. Within-population variation and inheritance.- 7.6.2.1. Wood properties.- 7.6.2.2. Uncomfortable trade-offs.- 7.6.2.3. Other aspects.- 7.6.3. Genotype-environment interaction.- 7.6.4. Performance of species hybrids.- 7.7. Evolution and differentiation of breeding goals.- 7.7.1. The blitz on wood properties.- 7.7.2. Disease and pest resistance.- 7.7.3. Specialisation or not, and deployment.- 7.8. Strategy and management of total genetic resources.- 7.8.1. Native-population resources (CONSERVE).- 7.8.2. Structuring of breeding population.- 7.8.2.1. Australia.- 7.8.2.2. New Zealand.- 7.8.2.3. Chile.- 7.9. Advances and problems in propagation technology.- 7.9.1. Vegetative propagation.- 7.9.1.1. Advances.- 7.9.1.2. Some stumbles.- 7.9.2. Seed production and novel hybridisation.- 7.10. Where to for clonal forestry?.- 7.11. Gene technology.- 7.11.1. Genomic research.- 7.11.1.1. Comparative genomics.- 7.11.1.2. DNA fingerprinting and clonal verification.- 7.11.1.3. Pedigree reconstruction.- 7.11.1.4. Search for DNA markers for selection.- 7.11.1.5. Gene expression studies and 'gene discovery'.- 7.11.1.6. Some convergence with other plant breeding.- 7.11.2. Genetic engineering.- 7.11.2.1. Target traits.- 7.11.2.2. Associated research.- 7.11.2.3. Regulatory context.- 7.12. Summary of domestication progress.- VIII. In Retrospect.- 8.1. Amenability of radiata to domestication.- 8.2. Different drivers of planting in different countries.- 8.3. Commercial forestry as a business model.- 8.4. Role of radiata in development of plantation forestry.- 8.4.1. Forest management systems.- 8.4.1.2. Establishment practices and nursery systems.- 8.4.1.2. Use of fertilisers.- 8.4.1.3. The trending regime conundrum.- 8.4.1.4. Modelling growth and outturns.- 8.4.1.5. Scope for ongoing refinements.- 8.4.2. Genetic improvement.- 8.4.2.1. The needs and opportunities.- 8.4.2.2. Breeding of radiata.- 8.4.2.3. The evolving role of radiata breeding.- 8.4.2.4. Towards advanced delivery systems for genetic gain.- 8.4.2.5. Roles of modern biotechnology.- 8.5. Pursuit of clonal forestry.- 8.6. The wood-quality issue.- 8.7. Influence of political structures.- 8.8. Forest ownership and institutional structures.- 8.9. Significance for economic and environmental sustainability.- IX. The Future.- 9.1. Introduction.- 9.2. Domestication Gaps and their Implications.- 9.2.1. The state of the genetic system.- 9.2.2. Reproductive biology.- 9.2.3. Physical architecture.- 9.2.4. Overview.- 9.3. Main issues and drivers of the future.- 9.3.1. What will the species be grown for?.- 9.3.2. Where will the species be grown?.- 9.3.2.1. Classes of land - availability and suitability.- 9.3.2.2. Climate change and biotic developments.- 9.3.2.3. Competing species for plantation-forestry roles.- 9.3.2.4. Prospective shifts in distribution.- 9.3.3. How will the species be grown?.- 9.3.4. Genetic improvement issues.- 9.3.4.1. Evolution of breeding objectives.- 9.3.4.2. Assay technologies.- 9.3.4.3. Classical data analysis.- 9.3.4.4. Use of gene technologies.- 9.3.4.5. DNA sequencing and bioinformatic advances.- 9.3.4.6. Role of genetic engineering.- 9.3.4.7. Delivery systems for genetic gain.- 9.3.4.8. Optimising field deployment.- 9.3.4.9. Strategic genetic management.- 9.3.5. Institutional and political changes and challenges.- 9.3.5.1. Forest ownership.- 9.3.5.2. R & D Institutions.- 9.3.5.3. Impacts of new technology.- 9.3.5.4. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs).- 9.4. The clonal forestry goal.- 9.5. Concluding.- References.- Glossary.- List of Abbreviations.- List of Species Names (common versus Latin).