Fundamental Astronomy

'1. Introduction.- 1.1 The Role of Astronomy.- 1.2 Astronomical Objects of Research.- 1.3 The Scale of the Universe.- 2. Spherical Astronomy.- 2.1 Spherical Trigonometry.- 2.2 The Earth.- 2.3 The Celestial Sphere.- 2.4 The Horizontal System.- 2.5 The Equatorial System.- 2.6 The Ecliptic System.- 2.7 The Galactic Coordinates.- 2.8 Perturbations of Coordinates.- 2.9 Constellations.- 2.10 Star Catalogues and Maps.- 2.11 Positional Astronomy.- 2.12 Time Reckoning.- 2.13 Astronomical Time Systems.- 2.14 Calendars.- 2.15 Exercises.- 3. Observations and Instruments.- 3.1 Observing Through the Atmosphere.- 3.2 Optical Telescopes.- 3.3 Detectors.- 3.4 Radio Telescopes.- 3.5 Other Wavelength Regions.- 3.6 Instruments of the Future.- 3.7 Other Forms of Energy.- 3.8 Exercises.- 4. Photometric Concepts and Magnitudes.- 4.1 Intensity, Flux Density and Luminosity.- 4.2 Apparent Magnitudes.- 4.3 Magnitude Systems.- 4.4 Absolute Magnitudes.- 4.5 Extinction and Optical Thickness.- 4.6 Exercises.- 5. Radiation Mechanisms.- 5.1 Radiation of Atoms and Molecules.- 5.2 The Hydrogen Atom.- 5.3 Quantum Numbers, Selection Rules, Population Numbers.- 5.4 Molecular Spectra.- 5.5 Continuous Spectra.- 5.6 Blackbody Radiation.- 5.7 Other Radiation Mechanisms.- 5.8 Radiative Transfer.- 5.9 Exercises.- 6. Temperatures.- 6.1 Exercises.- 7. Celestial Mechanics.- 7.1 Equations of Motion.- 7.2 Solution of the Equation of Motion.- 7.3 Equation of the Orbit and Kepler's First Law.- 7.4 Orbital Elements.- 7.5 Kepler's Second and Third Law.- 7.6 Orbit Determination.- 7.7 Position in the Orbit.- 7.8 Escape Velocity.- 7.9 Virial Theorem.- 7.10 The Jeans Limit.- 7.11 Exercises.- 8. The Solar System.- 8.1 An Overview.- 8.2 Planetary Configurations.- 8.3 Orbit of the Earth.- 8.4 Orbit of the Moon.- 8.5 Eclipses and Occultations.- 8.6 Albedos.- 8.7 Planetary Photometry, Polarimetry and Spectroscopy.- 8.8 Thermal Radiation of the Planets.- 8.9 The Structure of Planets.- 8.10 Planetary Surfaces.- 8.11 Atmospheres and Magnetospheres.- 8.12 Mercury.- 8.13 Venus.- 8.14 The Earth and the Moon.- 8.15 Mars.- 8.16 Asteroids.- 8.17 Jupiter.- 8.18 Saturn.- 8.19 Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.- 8.20 Minor Bodies of the Solar System.- 8.21 Cosmogony.- 8.22 Other Solar Systems.- 8.23 Exercises.- 9. Stellar Spectra.- 9.1 Measuring Spectra.- 9.2 The Harvard Spectral Classification.- 9.3 The Yerkes Spectral Classification.- 9.4 Peculiar Spectra.- 9.5 The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram.- 9.6 Model Atmospheres.- 9.7 What Do the Observations Tell Us.- 10. Binary Stars and Stellar Masses.- 10.1 Visual Binaries.- 10.2 Astrometric Binary Stars.- 10.3 Spectroscopic Binaries.- 10.4 Photometric Binary Stars.- 10.5 Exercises.- 11. Stellar Structure.- 11.1 Internal Equilibrium Conditions.- 11.2 Physical State of the Gas.- 11.3 Stellar Energy Sources.- 11.4 Stellar Models.- 11.5 Exercises.- 12. Stellar Evolution.- 12.1 Evolutionary Time Scales.- 12.2 The Contraction of Stars Towards the Main Sequence.- 12.3 The Main Sequence Phase.- 12.4 The Giant Phase.- 12.5 The Final Stages of Evolution.- 12.6 The Evolution of Close Binary Stars.- 12.7 Comparison with Observations.- 12.8 The Origin of the Elements.- 13. The Sun.- 13.1 Internal Structure.- 13.2 The Atmosphere.- 13.3 Solar Activity.- 14. Variable Stars.- 14.1 Classification.- 14.2 Pulsating Variables.- 14.3 Eruptive Variables.- 14.4 Exercises.- 15. Compact Stars.- 15.1 White Dwarfs.- 15.2 Neutron Stars.- 15.3 Black Holes.- 16. The Interstellar Medium.- 16.1 Interstellar Dust.- 16.2 Interstellar Gas.- 16.3 Interstellar Molecules.- 16.4 The Formation of Protostars.- 16.5 Planetary Nebulae.- 16.6 Supernova Remnants.- 16.7 The Hot Corona of the Milky Way.- 16.8 Cosmic Rays and the Interstellar Magnetic Field.- 17. Star Clusters and Associations.- 17.1 Associations.- 17.2 Open Star Clusters.- 17.3 Globular Star Clusters.- 18. The Milky Way.- 18.1 Methods of Distance