Electromechanical Sensors and Actuators

I Basic Tools for Transducer Modeling.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 What Is a Transducers.- 1.2 Why Study Transducers?.- 1.3 Division of Transducers into Sensors and Actuators.- 1.4 Transducers as Part of a Measurement or Control System.- 1.5 Historical Perspective.- 1.6 Organization of this Book.- 2 System Models.- 2.1 System Analogies.- 2.2 Ideal 1-Port Elements.- 2.2.1 Comments on Modeling and 1-Port Elements.- 2.3 Circuit Models.- 2.4 Bond Graph Models.- 2.5 Nonenergic 2-Port Elements.- 2.6 Multiport Energic Elements.- 2.7 Model Analysis.- 2.8 References.- II Transduction Mechanisms.- 3 Transduction Based on Changes in the Energy Stored in an Electric Field.- 3.1 Electric Fields and Forces.- 3.2 Transducers Made with a Variable Gap Parallel Plate Capacitor..- 3.2.1 Relating Displacement and Voltage.- 3.2.2 Relating Force and Voltage.- 3.2.3 Relating Force and Charge.- 3.3 Transducers Using Other Means of Varying the Capacitance in a Parallel Plate Capacitor.- 3.3.1 Variable Area.- 3.3.2 Varying Permittivity.- 3.4 Transducers with Cylindrical Geometry.- 3.5 Gradient Transduction Using Two Dielectrics.- 3.6 Electrostrictive Transduction.- 3.7 Summary.- 3.8 References.- 4 Transduction Based on Changes in the Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field.- 4.1 Magnetic Systems.- 4.1.1 Magnetic Materials.- 4.1.2 Magnetic Circuits.- 4.2 Variable Reluctance Transducers with Varying Gap.- 4.2.1 Relating Displacement and MAGNETOMOTANCE.- 4.2.2 Relating Force and Magnetomotance.- 4.2.3 Relating Force and Flux.- 4.3 Variable Reluctance Transducers with Varying Permeability and Area.- 4.3.1 Variable Area.- 4.3.2 Variable Permeability.- 4.4 Gradient Transduction with Two Ferromagnetic Materials.- 4.5 Magnetostrictive Transduction.- 4.6 Eddy Current Transducers.- 4.7 Summary.- 4.8 References.- 5 Piezoelectricity and Pyroelectricity.- 5.1 Piezoelectric Relations.- 5.2 Piezoelectric Materials.- 5.3 Piezoelectric Structures in Transducers.- 5.4 Models of Piezoelectricity.- 5.5 Examples of Piezoelectric Transducers.- 5.5.1 Examples of Broadband Transducers Using One Piezoelectric Element or a Stack of Parallel Piezoelectric Elements.- 5.5.2 Examples of Resonant Transducers Using a Single Piezoelectric Element or Element Stack.- 5.5.3 Example of a Transducer Using Multiple Nonparallel Piezoelectric Elements.- 5.5.4 Examples of Transducers which Are Unconventional.- 5.6 Pyroelectricity.- 5.7 Summary.- 5.8 References.- 6 Linear Inductive Transduction Mechanisms.- 6.1 Piezomagnetism.- 6.2 Pyromagnetism.- 6.3 Charged Particle Interactions.- 6.3.1 Examples of Transducers Based on the Motion of Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field.- 6.4 Hall Effect Transducers.- 6.4.1 Example Hall Effect Sensors.- 6.5 Summary.- 6.6 References.- 7 Transduction Based on Changes in the Energy Dissipated.- 7.1 Conductive Switches.- 7.2 Continuously Variable Conductivity Transducers.- 7.3 Potentiometric Devices.- 7.4 Piezoresistivity.- 7.4.1 Material Description.- 7.4.2 Strain Gauge Structures.- 7.4.3 Electrical Operation.- 7.5 Thermoresistivity.- 7.6 Thermoelectricity.- 7.6.1 Seebeck Effect.- 7.6.2 Peltier and Thomson Effects.- 7.7 Magnetoresistivity.- 7.8 Shape Memory Alloys in Transduction.- 7.9 Summary.- 7.10 References.- 8 Optomechanical Sensors.- 8.1 Quantum Detectors.- 8.1.1 Photoconductive Sensors.- 8.2 Fiber Optic Waveguide Fundamentals.- 8.3 Intensity-Modulated Fiber Optic Sensors.- 8.4 Phase-Modulated Sensors.- 8.5 Photostriction.- 8.6 Summary.- 8.7 References.- III Analysis of Transducers.- 9 2-port Theory.- 9.1 Basic 2-Port Equations.- 9.2 Reciprocity.- 9.3 Connected 2-Ports.- 9.4 Transfer Matrix and Sensitivity.- 9.5 Wave Matrix Representation and Efficiency.- 9.6 Summary.- 9.7 References.- 10 Response Characteristics.- 10.1 Response Characteristics Defined.- 10.1.1 Example of Transducer Selection Based on Specifications.- 10.2 Calibration.- 10.3 Frequency and Time Scaling.- 10.4 Summary.- 10.5 References.- 11 Practical Considerations.- 11.1 Digitization of Analog Sign