Physics of Fast Processes in Scintillators

Introduction

1.     Scintillation-based measurements of ionizing radiation

1.1  Energy measurements

1.1.1        Low-energy charged particles and gamma-quanta

1.1.2        High-energy charged particles

1.1.3        Neutral particles

1.2    Identification  of events

1.2.1        Low energy  gamma-quanta

1.2.2        Calorimetry  in high energy physics

1.3   Demand for fast timing measurements

2.     Timing measurements with light pulses

2.1  Scintillation pulse

2.1.1        Energy deposit

2.1.2        Forming of the scintillation pulse due to light collection in scintillatior element

2.2  Time resolution of two optical pulses  with an ideal photo-sensor

2.2.1        Time resolution of optical pulses passing through non-refractive media

2.2.2        Time resolution of optical pulses passing through refractive media

3.      Development of scintillation pulse

3.1  Stages of energy transformation in scintillators

3.2  Time evolution of hot carriers

3.3  Time structure of ionization track

3.3.1        Compounds with spatially homogeneous band gap

3.3.2        Mixed crystals

3.4  Thermalization of free carriers

3.5  Formation of emission centers

3.5.1        Formation of radiative recombination centers

3.5.1.1              Self-activated materials

3.5.1.2              Ce-doped materials

3.5.1.3              Role of shallow traps

3.6  Cross-luminescence

3.7  Nonlinear effects in interaction of carriers and formation of emission centers

3.7.1        Non-proportionality of fast processes

3.7.2        Formation of complex emission centers (biexcitons and transient radiation induced emission centers)

3.8  Fast emission in wide-band-gap semiconductors (ZnO, diamond, etc.)

3.9  Effects in spatially confinement systems (nano-scale scintillators)

3.10         Fast processes in scintillation ceramics

4.     Shallow traps in scintillation materials

4.1  Traps in Ce-doped materials

4.2  Intrinsic shallow traps in mixed crystals doped with Ce

4.3  Traps in self-activated materials

5.     Free carrier dynamics in scintillation materials

5.1  Experimental technique

5.2  Self-activated materials: PWO4, Bi4Ge3O12

5.3  Ce-doped  binary materials: LSO, YAP, YAG

5.4  Ce-doped  mixed crystals: LYSO, GAGG, GYAGG, LYAP

5.5 Synthetic diamonds

6.     Transient phenomena in scintillators

6.1  Intraband transitions

6.2  Conduction band

6.3  Valence band; the case of GAGG

6.4  Cerenkov radiation

7.     Transient phenomena in diamond

7.1  HPHT diamond

7.2  CVD diamond

8.     Coincidence time resolution with scintillators

8.1  CTR with Ce doped materials