Advances in Solar Energy: An Annual Review of Research and Development Volume 2

'1 The Measurement of Solar Radiation.- 1.1 Abstract.- 1.2 Characteristics of Pyranometers.- 1.3 General Features of a Pyranometer.- 1.3.1 Instrument Sensitivity.- 1.3.2 Response with Time.- 1.3.3 Sensitivity.- 1.3.4 Responsivity.- 1.3.5 Temperature Coefficient of Sensitivity.- 1.3.6 Thermal Transient Response.- 1.3.7 Linearity.- 1.3.8 Angular Dependence of Sensitivity.- 1.3.9 Leveling.- 1.3.10 Spectral Response.- 1.3.11 Stability.- 1.3.12 Pyranometer Sensitivity Function.- 1.4 Pyranometers.- 1.4.1 Clear-Sky Analysis.- 1.4.2 Installation of the Instrument.- 1.4.3 Thermopile Construction.- 1.4.4 Moisture.- 1.4.5 Deposition.- 1.4.6 Negative Values.- 1.4.7 Readings Which Exceed the Values for Extraterrestrial Insolation.- 1.4.8 Diffuse Solar Radiation.- 1.4.9 Shadowband Orientation.- 1.5 Pyrheliometers.- 1.5.1 Calibration.- 1.5.2 Temperature Correction.- 1.5.3 Spectral Measurements Using Broadband Filters.- 1.5.4 Time Constant of the Pyrheliometer.- 1.5.5 Tracking.- 1.5.6 Importance of the Solar Aureole.- 1.5.7 Pyrheliometer Tracker Wiring.- 1.5.8 Quality Control of Data.- 1.5.9 Solar Radiation Instruments.- 1.5.9.1 The Pyrheliometers.- 1.5.9.2 The Pyranometers.- 1.5.9.3 Duration of Sunshine Instruments.- Appendix 1.1 Historical Perspectives.- 1.1.1 Historical Perspectives-From Sundials to Satellites.- References.- 2 Environmental Requirements for Anaerobic Digestion of Biomass.- 2.1 Abstract.- 2.2 Introduction.- 2.3 Microbiology of Methanogens.- 2.3.1 Interspecies H2 Transfer.- 2.3.2 Methanogenic Reactions.- 2.3.3 Characteristics of Methanogenic Species in Pure Culture.- 2.3.4 Methanothrix Soehngenii.- 2.3.5 Biochemical Mechanisms and Pathways.- 2.3.6 Predominance of Species.- 2.3.7 Fermentative Bacteria.- 2.4 Nutrient Requirements.- 2.4.1 Nitrogen.- 2.4.2 Phosphorus.- 2.4.3 Sulfur.- 2.4.4 Trace Metals.- 2.5 Toxicity Response.- 2.5.1 Acclimation and Metabolism.- 2.5.2 Microbial Kinetics and Toxicity.- 2.5.3 Toxicity in Anaerobic Digestion Studies.- 2.6 Alkalinity.- 2.6.1 Alkalinity Concentration Required.- 2.6.2 Choice of Purchased Alkalinity.- 2.7 Modeling of the Anaerobic Digestion Process.- 2.7.1 Cellular Synthesis of Organic Substrate.- 2.7.2 Rate-Limiting Step in Anaerobic Digestion.- 2.7.2.1 Lipids and Acetate.- 2.7.2.2 Cellulose.- 2.7.3 Kinetics.- 2.7.4 Stoichiometry.- 2.7.5 Calculations of Methane Production.- 2.8 Design Prerequisites.- 2.8.1 Solids Concentration in Feed Sludge.- 2.8.2 Batch versus Continuous Feeding.- 2.8.3 Plug Flow versus CSTR.- 2.8.4 Temperature.- 2.8.5 Process Configuration.- 2.8.6 Soluble versus Sludge Feedstocks.- 2.8.7 Industrial Wastewaters Treated by Methane Fermentation.- 2.8.8 Screening Studies.- 2.8.9 Scale-Up Factors Affecting Performance.- 2.9 Future Directions.- References.- 3 Principles and Technology of Biomass Gasification.- 3.1 Abstract.- 3.2 Introduction.- 3.2.1 History of Biomass Gasification.- 3.2.2 Major References on Biomass Gasification.- 3.2.3 Gasification Research Centers.- 3.2.4 Gasification Meetings.- 3.3 Gasifier Technology.- 3.3.1 Types of Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.1 Charcoal Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.2 Updraft Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.3 Downdraft Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.4 Fluidized Bed Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.5 Suspension Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.6 Other Gasifiers.- 3.3.2 Gasifier Systems.- 3.3.3 Gasifier System Specifications.- 3.3.4 Producer Gas Use and Gas Conditioning.- 3.4 Principles of Gasification.- 3.4.1 Gasifier Fuels.- 3.4.2 Biomass versus Coal Gasification.- 3.4.3 Chemistry of Biomass Gasification.- 3.4.4 Global Thermodynamics of Biomass Gasification.- 3.4.5 The Gasification Reactions.- 3.4.5.1 Solid and Gas Pyrolysis.- 3.4.5.2 Kinetics of Solid Pyrolysis Reactions.- 3.4.5.3 Kinetics of Biomass Vapor Pyrolysis Reactions.- 3.4.5.4 Mechanisms of Charcoal Gasification.- 3.4.5.5 Kinetics of Charcoal Gasification.- 3.4.6 Modeling of Gasifier Operation.- 3.4.6.1 Updraft Gasifier Modeling.- 3.4.6.2 Downdraft Gas