Instrumentation in Applied Nuclear Chemistry

1 Basic Theory of Nuclear Processes.- 1.1. Introduction.- 1.2. Atoms and Nuclei.- 1.2.1. Structure of the Atom.- 1.2.2. Electron Cloud.- 1.2.3. Nucleus.- 1.3. Nuclear Models.- 1.4. Radiation.- 1.4.1. Origin and Type of Radiation.- 1.4.2. Electromagnetic Radiation or Photons.- 1.4.3. Corpuscular Radiation.- 1.5. Nuclear Reactions and Radioactivity.- 1.5.1. Characteristics.- 1.5.2. Reaction Processes.- 1.5.3. Cross Section for Nuclear Reactions.- 1.5.4. Fission.- 1.5.5. Radioactivity.- 1.5.6. Radioactive Growth and Decay.- 1.6. Interaction of Radiation with Matter.- 1.6.1. Electromagnetic Radiation.- 1.6.2. Corpuscular Radiation.- 1.7. References.- 2 Systems and Their Use.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Detectors.- 2.2.1. Ionization Detectors.- 2.2.2. Excitation Detectors.- 2.2.3. Output Signals.- 2.3. Instrumentation.- 2.3.1. NIM Standard.- 2.3.2. Electrometers.- 2.3.3. Preamplifiers.- 2.3.4. Main Amplifiers.- 2.3.5. Scalers.- 2.3.6. Ratemeters.- 2.3.7. Timing Circuits.- 2.3.8. Single-Channel Analyzers.- 2.3.9. Multichannel Analyzers.- 2.3.10. Computers.- 2.3.11. Interface Equipment.- 2.3.12. High-Voltage Power Supplies.- 2.4. References.- 3 Applications.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Neutron Activation Analysis.- 3.3. Fluorescence Analysis.- 3.4. Mössbauer Effect.- 3.5. Tracers and Labeling of Molecules.- 3.5.1. Factors to Consider for Tracing.- 3.5.2. Labeling of Molecules.- 3.6. Radiodating techniques.- 3.7. Absolute Activity.- 3.7.1. 4? Counting.- 3.7.2. ?-? Coincidence Counting.- 3.8. Hot Atom Chemistry.- 3.9. Radiation Chemistry.- 3.10. Half-Life Measurement.- 3.11. References.- 4 Detectors.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Detector Physics in General.- 4.3. Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors.- 4.3.1. Operating Regions.- 4.3.2. Applications.- 4.4. Scintillation Detectors.- 4.5. Semiconductor Detectors.- 4.5.1. Physical Description.- 4.5.2. Construction.- 4.5.3. Performance.- 4.6. Spectrum Interpretation.- 4.6.1. General.- 4.6.2. Detector Absorption.- 4.6.3. Effects of Geometry.- 4.6.4. Theoretical Spectrum Calculations.- 4.6.5. Photofraction.- 4.6.6. Energy Response Function.- 4.6.7. Spectrum Stripping.- 4.6.8. Efficiency.- 4.7. Background.- 4.7.1. Introduction.- 4.7.2. Environmental Background Sources.- 4.7.3. Inherent Background Sources.- 4.7.4. Detector Shield.- 4.8. References.- 5 NIM Standard.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Need for a Standard Modular System.- 5.3. History of Development.- 5.4. Advantages.- 5.5. Description.- 5.5.1. General Compatibility.- 5.5.2. Bins.- 5.5.3. Modules.- 5.5.4. Standard Voltages.- 5.5.5. Logic Levels.- 5.5.6. Connectors and Bussing.- 5.5.7. Other NIM Requirements.- 5.6. Power Supplies.- 5.7. Typical NIM Instruments.- 5.8. Nonnuclear NIM Instrumentation.- 5.9. CAMAC.- 5.10. Future of NIM.- 5.11. References and Notes.- 6 Preamplifiers.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. Signal Sources in Nuclear Electronics.- 6.2.1. Silicon Surface Barrier Detectors.- 6.2.2. Lithium-Drifted Detectors.- 6.2.3. Scintillation Detectors.- 6.2.4. Gas-Filled Detectors.- 6.2.5. Pulse Generators.- 6.3. Basic Types of Preamplifiers.- 6.3.1. Current-Sensitive Preamplifiers.- 6.3.2. Voltage-Sensitive Preamplifiers.- 6.3.3. Charge-Sensitive Preamplifiers.- 6.4. Coupling the Preamplifier with the Detector and Other Equipment.- 6.4.1. Connection to the Detector.- 6.4.2. Counting Rate Considerations.- 6.4.3. Pulse Shape Compatibility.- 6.4.4. The Effect of Cable Length Between Detector and Preamplifier.- 6.4.5. Ground Loop Avoidance Techniques.- 6.5. Noise.- 6.5.1. Noise Specifications and Definitions.- 6.5.2. Comparison of Amplifier Input Devices.- 6.5.3. Determination of System Noise Performance.- 6.6. Considerations in Choosing a Preamplifier.- 6.6.1. Reasons for a Careful Choice.- 6.6.2. Type of Detector to be Used.- 6.6.3. Operating Bias Voltage Required by the Detector.- 6.6.4. Compatibility with Associated Equipment.- 6.6.5. Power Supplies.- 6.6.6. Cabling.- 6.6.7. Input Transient Protection.- 6.6.8. Energy to Detect.- 6.6.9. Energy Resolut