Biomass Conversion Processes for Energy and Fuels

I. Biomass Sources.- 1. Residues and Wastes.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Municipal Solid Wastes.- 2.1. Quantity.- 2.2. Characteristics.- 2.3. Fuel Value.- 2.4. Upgrading the Fuel Value.- 3. Municipal Sewage Sludges.- 3.1. Types.- 3.2. Quantities.- 3.3. Characteristics.- 3.4. Utilization of Sludges.- 4. Animal Wastes.- 4.1. Quantity and Quality.- 4.2. Utilization.- 5. Crop Residues.- 5.1. Types.- 5.2. Quantity.- 5.3. Quality.- 5.4. Seasonality of Generation.- 5.5. Location of Residues.- 5.6. Other Factors.- 6. Industrial Wastes.- 7. Forest Products.- 7.1. Logging Residues.- 7.2. Residues from Wood Product Manufacturing.- 7.3. Residues from Pulp and Paper Manufacture.- References.- 2. Agricultural and Forestry Residues.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods of Data Analysis.- 2.1. Species Selected for Study and Analytical Rationale.- 2.2. Sources of Information.- 3. Chemical Quality of Agricultural and Forestry Residues.- 4. Estimates of Agricultural and Forestry Residues.- 4.1. Regional Distribution.- 4.2. Seasonal Availability.- References.- 3. Aquatic Biomass.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Algal Biomass.- 2.1. Yield.- 2.2. Feasibility of Culture Systems.- 3. Aquatic Macrophyte Biomass.- 3.1. Yield of Selected Species.- 3.2. Yield of Marsh Communities.- 3.3. Energy Equivalents and Nutrient Contents.- 4. Discussion.- References.- 4. Marine Biomass.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Biological Characteristics of Marine Plants.- 3. Geographical Distribution of Marine Plants.- 4. Primary Production.- 4.1. Fundamental Considerations.- 4.2. Geographical Distribution of Primary Production.- 4.3. Some Highly Productive Plants.- 5. Chemical Properties of Marine Plants.- 5.1. Inorganic Chemistry.- 5.2. Organic Chemistry.- 5.3. Energy Content.- 6. Commercial Culture and Cultivation.- 7. Utilization of Marine Plants.- 8. Relationship of Primary Production and Chemical Composition to Marine Energy Crops.- 8.1. Preprocessing.- 8.2. Processing Byproducts.- 8.3. Potential Energy Yield.- References.- 5. Silvicultural Energy Farms.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Silvicultural Energy Farm Concept.- 3. Conceptual Design and Operation of the Silvicultural Energy Farm.- 3.1. Energy Farm Design Parameters and Layout.- 3.2. Energy Farm Operational and Cost Data.- 3.2.1. Energy Farm Installation.- 3.2.1a. Land Acquisition.- 3.2.1b. Land Preparation.- 3.2.1c. Work Roads.- 3.2.1d. Irrigation Systems.- 3.2.1e. Planting.- 3.2.2. Energy Farm Operation.- 3.2.2a. Irrigation.- 3.2.2b. Fertilization.- 3.2.2c. Weed Control.- 3.2.2d. Harvesting.- 3.2.2e. Transportation.- 3.2.2f. Maintenance.- 3.2.2g. Support Costs.- 4. Biomass Production Economics.- 4.1. Biomass Production Costs.- 4.2. Production Costs Components.- 5. Energy Balance for Biomass Production.- 6. The Potential of Silvicultural Energy Farming.- 7. Conclusions.- References.- II. Conversion Processes.- Section A. Direct Combustion Processes.- 6. Basic Principles of Direct Combustion.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Composition.- 2.1. Moisture Content.- 2.2. Ash Content.- 2.3. Organic Content.- 3. Pyrolysis and Heat of Combustion of Biomass and Its Components.- 4. Combustion Process.- References.- 7. The Andco-Torrax System.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Description of Process.- 2.1. Gasifier.- 2.2. Fuel Gas System.- 2.3. Integrated Complete Combustion System.- 2.3.1. Gasifier.- 2.3.2. Secondary Combustion Chamber.- 2.3.3. Regenerative Towers.- 2.3.4. Waste Heat Boiler.- 2.3.5. Gas Cleaning System.- 3. Review of Plant Operations.- 3.1. Demonstration Plant.- 3.2. Commercial Plants.- 4. Heat and Mass Balances.- 5. Some Applications of the Process.- 5.1. Tires, Waste Rubber, and MSW.- 5.2. Sewage Sludge and MSW.- References.- Section B. Thermochemical Processes.- 8. Basic Principles of Thermochemical Conversion.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Kinetics and Thermodynamics Framework.- 2.1. Heating Values.- 2.2. Standard States.- 2.3. Enthalpy Tables.- 3. Gasification of Biomass.- 3.1. Types of Gasification Technologies.- 3.2. Governing Equations.- 3.3. Downstream Proce